B. F. Skinner Biography of the Behaviorist Thinker

B. F. Skinner Biography of the Behaviorist Thinker More in Psychology History and Biographies Psychotherapy Basics Student Resources Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming In This Article Table of Contents Expand Best Known For Biography Inventions   Project Pigeon The Baby Tender Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement Teaching Machines Later Life and Career Awards and Recognitions Select Publications Contributions B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist best-known for his influence on  behaviorism. Skinner referred to his own philosophy as radical behaviorism and suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the direct result of conditioning. Best Known For Operant conditioningSchedules of ReinforcementSkinner BoxCumulative RecorderRadical Behaviorism Among his many discoveries, inventions, and accomplishments were the creation of the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner Box), his research on schedules of reinforcement, the introduction of response rates as a dependent variable in research, and the creation of the cumulative recorder to track these response rates. In one survey, Skinner was named the most influential psychologist of the twentieth-century. Birth and Death Born: March 20, 1904Died: August 18, 1990 Biography Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in the small town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. His father was a lawyer and his mother a homemaker and he grew up with a brother who was two years his junior. He later described his Pennsylvania childhood as warm and stable. As a boy, he enjoyed building and inventing things; a skill he would later use in his own psychological experiments. His younger brother Edward died at the age of 16 due to a cerebral hemorrhage. During high school, Skinner started to develop an interest in scientific reasoning from his extensive study of the works of Francis Bacon. He went on to receive a B.A. in English literature in 1926 from Hamilton College. After earning his undergraduate degree he decided to become a writer, a period of his life that he would later refer to as the dark year. During this time he wrote only a few short newspaper articles and quickly grew disillusioned with his literary talents, despite receiving some encouragement and mentorship from the famed poet Robert Frost. While working as a clerk at a bookstore, Skinner happened upon the works of Pavlov and Watson, which became a turning point in his life and career. Inspired by these works, Skinner decided to abandon his career as a novelist and entered the psychology graduate program at Harvard University. After receiving his  Ph.D.  from Harvard in 1931, Skinner continued to work at the university for the next five years thanks to a fellowship. During this period of time, he  continued  his research on operant behavior and operant conditioning. He  married Yvonne Blue in 1936, and the couple went on to have two daughters, Julie and Deborah. Inventions   During his time at Harvard, Skinner became interested in studying human behavior in an objective and scientific way. He developed what he referred to as an operant conditioning apparatus, which later become known as a Skinner box. The device was a chamber that contained a bar or key that an animal could press in order to receive food, water, or some other form of reinforcement. It was during this time at Harvard that he also invented the cumulative recorder, a device that recorded responses as a sloped line. By looking at the slope of the line, which indicated the rate of response, Skinner was able to see that response rates depended upon what happened after the animal pressed the bar. That is, higher response rates followed rewards while lower response rates followed a lack of rewards. The device also allowed Skinner to see that the schedule of reinforcement that was used also influenced the rate of response. Using this device, he found that behavior did not depend on the preceding stimulus as Watson and Pavlov maintained. Instead, Skinner found that behaviors were dependent on what happens after the response. Skinner called this operant behavior. Project Pigeon Skinner took a teaching position at the University of Minnesota following his marriage. While teaching at the University of Minnesota and during the height of World War II, Skinner became interested in helping with the war effort. He received funding for a project that involved training pigeons to guide bombs since no missile guidance systems existed at the time. In Project Pigeon, as it was called, pigeons were placed in the nose cone of a missile and were trained to peck at a target that would then direct the missile toward the intended target. The project never came to fruition, since the development of radar was also underway, although Skinner had considerable success working with the pigeons. While the project was eventually canceled, it did lead to some interesting findings and Skinner was even able to teach the pigeons to play ping-pong. The Baby Tender In 1943, B.F. Skinner also invented the baby tender at the request of his wife. It is important to note that the baby tender is not the same as the Skinner box, which was used in Skinners experimental research. He created the enclosed heated crib with a plexiglass window in response to his wifes request for a safer alternative to traditional cribs. Ladies Home Journal printed an article on the crib with the title Baby in a Box, contributing in part to some misunderstanding over the cribs intended use. A later incident also led to further misunderstandings over Skinners baby crib. In her 2004 book Opening Skinners Box: Great Psychology Experiments of the Twentieth Century, author Lauren Slater mentioned the oft-cited rumor that  the baby tender was actually used as an experimental device.?? The rumors were that Skinners daughter had served as a subject and that she had committed suicide as a result. Slaters book pointed out that this was nothing more than a rumor, but a later review of the book mistakenly stated that her book supported the claims. This led to an angry and passionate rebuttal of the rumors by Skinners very much alive and well daughter Deborah. In 1945, Skinner moved to Bloomington, Indiana and became Psychology Department Chair at the University of Indiana. In 1948, he joined the psychology department at Harvard University where he remained for the rest of his life. Operant Conditioning In Skinners operant conditioning process, an operant referred to any behavior that acts on the environment and leads to consequences. He contrasted operant behaviors (the actions under our control) with respondent behaviors, which he described as anything that occurs reflexively or automatically such as jerking your finger back when you accidentally touch a hot pan. Skinner identified reinforcement as any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. The two types of reinforcement he identified were positive reinforcement (favorable outcomes such as reward or praise) and negative reinforcement (the removal of unfavorable outcomes). Punishment can also play an important role in the operant conditioning process. According to Skinner, punishment is the application of an adverse outcome that decreases or weakens the behavior it follows. Positive punishment involves presenting an unfavorable outcome (prison, spanking, scolding) while negative punishment involves removing a favorable outcome following a behavior (taking away a favorite toy, getting grounded). Schedules of Reinforcement In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also discovered and described schedules of reinforcement: Fixed-ratio schedulesVariable-ratio schedulesFixed-interval schedulesVariable-interval schedules Teaching Machines Skinner also developed an interest in education and teaching after attending his daughters math class in 1953. Skinner noted that none of the students received any sort of  immediate feedback on their performance. Some students struggled and were unable to complete the problems while others finished quickly but really didnt learn anything new. Instead, Skinner believed that the best approach would be to create some sort of device that would shape behavior, offering incremental feedback until a desired response was achieved. He started by developing a math teaching machine that offered immediate feedback after each problem. However, this initial device did not actually teach new skills. Eventually, he was able to develop a machine that delivered incremental feedback and presented material in a series of small steps until students acquired new skills, a process known as programmed instruction. Skinner later published a collection of his writings on teaching and education titled The Technology of Teaching. Later Life and Career Skinners  research and writing quickly made him one of the leaders of the behaviorist movement in psychology and his work contributed immensely to the development of experimental psychology. Drawing on his former literary career, Skinner also used fiction to present many of his theoretical ideas. In his 1948 book Walden Two, Skinner described a fictional utopian society in which people were trained to become ideal citizens through the use of operant conditioning. His 1971 book Beyond Freedom and Dignity  also made him a lightning rod for controversy since his work seemed to imply that humans did not truly possess free will. His 1974 book About Behaviorism was written in part to dispel many of the rumors about his theories and research. In his later years, Skinner continued to write about his life and his theories. He was diagnosed with leukemia in 1989. Just eight days before he died, Skinner was given a lifetime achievement award by the American Psychological Association and he delivered a 15-minute talk to a crowded auditorium when he accepted the award. He died on August 18, 1990. Awards and Recognitions 1966 Edward Lee Thorndike Award, American Psychological Association1968 - National Medal of Science from President Lyndon B. Johnson1971 - Gold Medal of the American Psychological Foundation1972 - Human of the Year Award1990 - Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Select Publications Skinner, B. F. (1935) Two types of conditioned reflex and a pseudo type Journal of General Psychology, 12, 66-77.Skinner, B. F. (1938) Superstition’ in the pigeon Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.Skinner, B. F. (1950) Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57, 193-216.Skinner, B. F. (1971) Beyond Freedom and DignitySkinner, B. F. (1989) The Origins of Cognitive Thought Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior, Merrill Publishing Company. Contributions to  Psychology Skinner was a prolific author, publishing nearly 200 articles and more than 20 books. In a 2002 survey of psychologists, he was identified as the most influential 20th-century psychologist. While behaviorism is no longer a dominant school of thought, his work in operant conditioning remains vital today. Mental health professionals often utilize operant techniques when working with clients, teachers frequently use reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior in the classroom, and animal trainers rely heavily on these techniques to train dogs and other animals. Skinners remarkable legacy has left both a lasting mark on psychology and numerous other fields ranging from philosophy to education.

Inspired Relevancy Podcast 165

   Podcast 164 began the first of a three-part conversation about relevancy. The first segment focused on the highest form of relevancy—intrinsic relevancy. Intrinsic relevancy relates to something that a person is born with and is a natural extension of that person. In Podcast 165 the conversation continues, this time Andrew and Julie discuss something Andrew Pudewa has termed â€Å"inspired relevancy.† While intrinsic relevancy comes in as the strongest of the four forms of relevancy, inspired relevancy is only a small step away and can actually be a very effective way to motivate students to learn. Inspired relevancy may be demonstrated in a child who gains a new interest in a subject, whether it be soccer, stamps, sailing, or something else, simply because his best friend is interested in it as well. Astute parents and teachers can leverage inspired relevancy to encourage engaged learning in their students. One way to accomplish this is to find subject matter that is intrinsically interesting to the students and use that to capture their interest. Another way to inspire students is to model for them what you wish them to do, for example, writing, doing math, or eating healthy foods. By showing your students that you value something, you help them to value it as well. Would you like to learn more about how you can harness inspired relevancy in your classroom or home? Listen to the podcast for additional information and tips about this fascinating subject. Perhaps it will inspire you!

VAX Computer Work Together with VAXclusters - 885 Words

VAXclusters is made to be used by using many VAX computers so that all these systems could work together and operate as one unit. Professionals are making new programs so that updated working could be obtained through VAXclusters. Users of VAXclusters are able to have speed for almost 70MB per second which is able to handle nearly 3000 messages in one second. It means that users of VAXclusters are able to have high sending and receiving of messages in this system. Multiprocessors are tightly coupled in VAXclusters and distributed systems are loosely coupled so that users could get instant results. Professionals are installing and updating programs in VAXclusters so that desired results can be obtained by users. Professionals had a goal in mind to make a system with VAX computers which will be available for users in order to process their queries with great speed and accuracy. Continued working and research gave birth to a new system which is known as VAXclusters. All data is stored in a large sized hard disk and users of VAXclusters have access to this storage of data for getting benefits. VAXclusters is available for users all the time and it is easy to extend this system as it is made in such a manner to have easy installations of systems and programs for better performance. Professionals are available and working on VAXclusters for increasing the scope of working and providing more areas for users. Much advancement have made in old models so that new VAXclusters couldShow MoreRelatedThe Cambridge distributed computing system has performed an essential role in enhancing the quality1900 Words   |  8 Pagescommunications via computers. By using processing techniques instant outcomes could be acquired which may make it feasible to deliver and obtain data anytime as well as storage might be carried out in the preferred method. Sophisticated technology has created it feasible for people to get computers within their ownership and obtain the b est outcomes for communications. The Cambridge distributed computing system is useful in producing connections among various kinds of computers regarding fast functioning

Essay on Critical Incident - 1728 Words

Within this essay, the author will reflect on a critical incident using a reflective model. In order to guide the author undertake this reflection, Johns (2002) reflective model will be utilised. As the first stage of Johns reflective model asks for the description of the event, the descriptive part will be attached (see appendix A). In accordance with the NMC Code of Professional Conduct (2008) the names of the individual involved have been changed using pseudonym in the form of James, Jennifer and Christina for the purpose of maintaining confidentiality. This reflection has been chosen as it has shown the author the inadequacies on her part as a student nurse. Also to highlight the need for the author and professionals to have an†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, upon assessing Christina I noticed that she was experiencing breathlessness and showing signs of distress. According to Kisiel and Perkins (2006) recording vital observation is an important aspect of nursing care as this provides the physiological state of the patient. At this point my main priority was to assess the patient’s baseline. I also felt it was unnecessary to disturb Christina with questions regarding her history and identity. As this could have leaded the patient become more breathlessness. However, I was distracted by the patient’s breathlessness and distress. Therefore the consequence of my actions was that I wrote the vital signs on the wrong chart. The lack of proper documentation could have lead a negative impact on the patient health and can ultimately cause fatal consequences. The NMC (2008) requires practitioners to make correct documentation as this could cause dangerous consequences for patients and result in further disciplinary action. Looking back, Nurse James would have been held accountable for my action. The NMC (2008) clearly states that a registered nurse is obligated to ensure the safety of patients at all times. On the other hand, as a student I may be held responsible by the university and possible could face being penalised (Pellat 2006). Upon reflection I feel that as a student nurse at advanced stage of my training I was not able to work under pressure and multitask. I should have been ableShow MoreRelatedCritical Incidents Of Academic Institutions870 Words   |  4 Pages Critical Incidents in Academic Institutions The critical incident technique is used to gather and analyze an employees behavior through methods such as observation and interviews (Andersson Nilsson,1964). This technique is useful in collecting information regarding behavior that amounts to successful or unsuccessful in a performance (Peterson, Jeanneret, 2007). 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America Doesn’t Need More Welfare Checks Essay - 1042 Words

America Doesn’t Need More Welfare Checks nbsp; The United States recently experienced one of the greatest booms in our economic history. More people were working than ever before. People were buying houses at a faster rate than they have in decades. Yet there were many people still living from paycheck to paycheck, or welfare check to welfare check. The subject of welfare stirs different passions in different people. Some say that those who are on welfare should be taken off, with no hope of survival afterward. They should support themselves, these people say. Others believe that these welfare recipients should be able to stay on the rolls indefinitely. I think that people who are on welfare, who are physically capable to work,†¦show more content†¦He had applied all over the city, trying to find work but had no luck. They were forced to go on welfare because his unemployment had run out. A man such as this should be required to work, but the state and local governments should assist him in finding a job, then train him so he will be able to not only keep the job he has but also go on to a better one, thereby taking himself and his family off of the rolls. This is not only a sensible thing to do, but it is the most humane way to help welfare recipients and eventually lessen welfare enrollment altogether. nbsp; By requiring people on welfare to work, and assisting them to get low-paying jobs if nothing else, the state and local governments give the people incentive to get better paying jobs and keep them. I read an article once that showed the correlation between government-assisted welfare workers and full-time permanent employment of those same workers later. I firmly believe that people will help and support themselves if given a decent chance. This country is founded on the idea of self-sufficiency. We are taught this in the public schools from the first day. We are trained not to cheat, not to steal answers from another persons paper, and not to depend on others to do our work for us. It seems to be an innate human quality that people want to rely on upon themselves and achieve goals on their own. When people who are down on their luck are given a helping hand, often they will move fromShow MoreRelatedWelfare Is A Good Idea1518 Words   |  7 Pages Welfare is a good idea that financially helps those in need and provides people with an income when they are unable to earn a monthly wage; however, when this system is abused it is no longer efficient. Welfare was intended for people who are permanently disabled mentally or physically and are unable to work, but welfare has become an option for every American, even those who do not want to work but are capable of doing so. The American Economy has started to decline because of this dueRead MoreThe Issue Of Welfare And Welfare1360 Words   |  6 Pagessocial security payment. This is essentially what welfare is. Welfare comes in all different shapes and sizes but its main focus is to take money from taxes and hand it out to the people who need it. Now welfare as a whole is a very understandable system and is very helpful to those who fall out of work and need a little help to sustain themselves while they get back on their feet. However, people are living on welfare and wi ll always live on welfare until the government makes improvements within itsRead MoreThe Misuse of Welfare in America1317 Words   |  6 PagesA Look at the Flaws of the American Welfare System The lessons of history, confirmed by evidence immediately before me, show conclusively that continued dependence on relief induces a spiritual and moral disintegration fundamentally destructive to the national fiber. To dole out relief in this way is to administer a narcotic, a subtle destroyer of the human spirit. It is inimical to the dictates of sound policy. 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Benefits And Costs Of Immigration - 927 Words

Benefits and costs of immigration When it comes to the topic of immigration, most of us will readily agree that both illegal and legal immigration is an issue in the United States. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of the economy. Whereas some are convinced that the United States economy benefits from both illegal and legal migration, others maintain there are costs in allowing immigration. Increased immigration would expand the American work force, and encourage more business start-ups. However, American anti-immigrant groups have long feared the possibility that immigrants drive native born workers out of jobs. With that being said, an immigrant policy focused on increasing economic growth would seek ways to admit more immigrants with the advanced education levels desired by domestic employers. Millions of immigrants migrate to the United States to escape the political repression that is taking place in their homeland. So immigrants choose to migrate to the United States because of the prospect of economic betterment. According to â€Å"Immigration† an article by Helmut Anheier, â€Å"immigrants compare wage rates and unemployment rates in their countries of origin as well as in potential destination countries.† Immigrants see the wage gap, therefore, they decide to migrate to the United States for greater good job opportunities. The job opportunities in America intrigue immigrants, so they migrate here to find work and make a new living. There are aShow MoreRelatedThe Cost of Illegal Imigration Essays1560 Words   |  7 Pagesas the great nation we are. The struggle I speak of is not immigration but illegal immigration. Illegal immigrants have caused a struggle politically, in the government and have affected you even in your own schools and work. We must rectify the immigration system to help our predicament because the effects of illegal immigration may surprise you. 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The Secret Circle The Initiation Chapter Seven Free Essays

The first person Cassie saw at school the next morning was Faye. The tall girl was standing with a group in front of a side entrance that Cassie had been taking to be inconspicuous. Deborah, the biker, and Suzan, the pneumatic strawberry blond, were in the group. We will write a custom essay sample on The Secret Circle: The Initiation Chapter Seven or any similar topic only for you Order Now So were the two blond guys who had been roller blading through the halls yesterday. And there were two other guys. One was a short boy with a hesitant, slinking look and a furtive smile. The second was tall, with dark hair and a handsome, cold face. He was wearing a T-shirt with rolled-up sleeves and black jeans like Deborah’s, and he was smoking a cigarette. Nick? thought Cassie, remembering the girls’ conversation yesterday. The reptile? Cassie flattened herself against the red brick wall and retreated as quickly and quietly as possible. She went in the main entrance, then hurried to her English class. Almost guiltily, she reached down to pat her hip pocket. It was stupid to have brought it, but the little piece of chalcedony did make her feel better. And of course it was ridiculous to believe that it could bring her luck – but then again, she’d gotten to school this morning without running into Faye, hadn’t she? She found an empty desk in a back corner of the classroom on the opposite side from where Faye had sat yesterday. She didn’t want Faye near her – or behind her. Here, she was shielded by a whole cluster of people. But strangely, soon after she sat down, there was a sort of shuffling around her. She looked up to see a couple of girls moving forward. The guy beside her was moving too. For a moment she sat quite still, not even breathing. Don’t be paranoid. Just because people move doesn’t mean it has anything to do with you. But she couldn’t help notice that there was now a wide expanse of empty desks all around her. Faye breezed in, talking to a stiff Jeffrey Lovejoy. Cassie got a glimpse of her and then quickly looked away. She couldn’t keep her mind on Mr. Humphries’s lecture. How could she think with so much space around her? It had to be only a coincidence, but it shook her just the same. At the end of class, when Cassie stood up, she felt eyes on her. She turned to see Faye looking at her and smiling. Slowly, Faye closed one eye in a wink. Once out of the room Cassie headed for her locker. As she twirled the combination dial she saw someone standing nearby, and with a jolt recognized the short, slinking boy who’d been with Faye that morning. His locker was open, and she could see several ads from what looked like Soloflex brochures taped inside the door. He was grinning at her. His belt buckle was silver with shiny, mirrorlike stones in it, and it was engraved Sean. Cassie gave him the unimpressed look she reserved for little boys she baby-sat back home and pulled open her locker. And screamed. It was more of a choked, strangled cry, actually, because her throat closed up on her. Dangling from the top of her locker by a piece of twine around its neck was a doll. The doll’s head lolled grotesquely to one side – it had been pulled out of the socket. One blue glass eye was open; the other was stuck gruesomely halfway shut. It seemed to be winking at her. The short boy was gazing at her with a strange, eager expression. As if he were drinking in her horror. As if it intoxicated htm. â€Å"Aren’t you going to report that? Shouldn’t you go to the principal’s office?† he said. His voice was high and excited. Cassie just stared at him, her breath coming quickly. Then: â€Å"Yes, I am,† she said. She grabbed the doll and jerked it and the twine came free. Slamming the locker shut, she headed for the stairs. The principal’s office was on the second floor. Cassie thought she’d have to wait, but to her surprise the secretary ushered her in as soon as she gave her name. â€Å"Can I help you?† The principal was tall, with an austere, forbidding face. His office had a fireplace, Cassie noted distractedly, and he stood in front of it with his hands clasped behind his back. â€Å"Yes,† she said. Her voice was shaking. And now that she’d gotten here, she wasn’t at all sure that this was a good idea. â€Å"I’m new at school; my name is Cassie Blake – â€Å" â€Å"I’m aware of who you are.† His voice was clipped and brusque. â€Å"Well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Cassie faltered. â€Å"I just wanted to report†¦ Yesterday, I saw this girl having a fight with another girl, and she pushed her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  What was she talking about? She was babbling. â€Å"And I saw it, and so she threatened me. She’s in this club – but the point is, she threatened me. And I wasn’t going to do anything about it, but then today I found this in my locker.† He took the doll, holding it by the back of the dress with two fingers. He looked at it as if she’d handed him something the dog had dug up in the yard. His lip was curled in a way that reminded Cassie somehow of Portia. â€Å"Very amusing,† he said. â€Å"How apt.† Cassie had no idea what that was supposed to mean. Apt meant appropriate, didn’t it? It was appropriate that somebody was hanging dolls in her locker? â€Å"It was Faye Chamberlain,† she said. â€Å"Oh, no doubt,† he said. â€Å"I’m quite aware of the problems Miss Chamberlain has in interacting with other students. I’ve even had a report about this incident yesterday, about how you tried to push Sally Waltman down the stairs – â€Å" Cassie stared, then blurted out, â€Å"I what ? Who told you that?† â€Å"I believe it was Suzan Whittier.† â€Å"It isn’t true! I never – â€Å" â€Å"Be that as it may,† the principal interrupted, â€Å"I really think you’d better learn to solve these problems among yourselves, don’t you? Instead of relying on – outside help.† Cassie just went on staring, speechless. â€Å"That’s all.† The principal tossed the doll in the wastebasket, where it hit with a resounding plastic clunk. Cassie realized she was dismissed. There was nothing to do but turn around and walk out. She was late for her next class. As she walked in the door all eyes turned to her, and for an instant she felt a flash of paranoia. But at least no one got up and left when she took a desk. She was watching the teacher do an example on the board when her backpack moved. It was lying on the floor beside her, and out of the corner of her eye she saw the dark blue nylon hump up. She thought she saw it. When she turned to stare at it, it was still. Imagination†¦ As soon as she faced the board, it happened again. Turn and stare. It was still. Look at the board. It humped up. As if something were wriggling inside it. It must be waves of hot air, or something wrong with her eyes. Very slowly and carefully, Cassie edged her foot over to the backpack. She stared at the blackboard as she lifted her foot and then brought it down suddenly on the â€Å"hump.† All she felt was the flatness of her French book. She hadn’t realized she was holding her breath until it sighed out. Her eyes shut in helpless relief†¦ And then something beneath her foot writhed. She felt it under her Reebok. With a piercing shriek, she leaped to her feet. â€Å"What is the matter?† the teacher cried. Now everyone really was staring at her. â€Å"There’s something – something in my backpack. It moved.† Cassie had a hard time not clutching at the teacher’s arm. â€Å"No, don’t – don’t reach in there†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Shaking her off, the teacher held the backpack open. Then she plunged her hand inside and pulled out a long rubber snake. Rubber. â€Å"Is this supposed to be funny?† the teacher demanded. â€Å"It’s not mine,† Cassie said stupidly. â€Å"I didn’t put it there.† She was gazing, mesmerized, at the flopping, bobbing rubber head and the painted black rubber tongue. It looked real, but it wasn’t. It was unalive. Dead meat? â€Å"It did move,† she whispered. â€Å"I felt it move†¦ I thought. It must have just been my foot shifting.† The class was watching silently. Looking up, Cassie thought she saw a flash of something like pity on the teacher’s face, but the next moment it was gone. â€Å"All right, everybody. Let’s get back to work,† the teacher said, dropping the snake on her desk and returning to the blackboard. Cassie spent the rest of the period with her eyes locked on those of the rubber snake. It never moved again. Cassie looked through the glass at the cafeteria full of laughing, talking students. French class had passed in a blur. And the paranoia, the feeling that people were looking at her and then deliberately turning their backs, kept growing. I should go outside, she thought, but of course that was ridiculous. Look where going outside had gotten her yesterday. No, she would do today what she should have done then: walk up and ask somebody if she could sit next to them. All right. Do it. It would have been easier if she hadn’t been feeling so giddy. Lack of sleep, she thought. She stopped, with her filled tray, beside two girls eating at a square table built for four. They looked nice, and more important, they looked like sophomores. They should be glad to have a junior sit with them. â€Å"Hi,† she heard her own voice saying, disembodied but polite. â€Å"Can I sit here?† They looked at each other. Cassie could almost see the frantic telegraphing. Then one spoke up. â€Å"Sure†¦ but we were just leaving. Help yourself.† She picked up her tray and made for the garbage can. The other girl looked dismayed an instant, gazing down at her own tray. Then she followed. Cassie stood as if she’d taken root in the floor. Okay, that was too bad – you picked somebody who was just leaving, all right. But that’s no reason to be upset†¦ Even though their lunches were only half eaten? With a supreme effort, she made herself walk over to another table. A round one this time, seating six. There was one seat empty. Don’t ask, she thought. Just sit. She put her tray down at the empty place, shrugged her backpack off her shoulder, and sat. She kept her eyes glued to her tray, concentrating on one piece of pepperoni in her slice of pizza. She didn’t want to seem to be asking permission of anyone. All around her, conversation died. Then she heard the scraping of chairs. Oh my God I don’t believe this I don’t believe this is happening it’s not true†¦ But it was. Her worst nightmare. Something so much worse than dead dolls or rubber snakes. In a daze of unreality she looked up to see every other occupant of the table rising. They were picking up their lunches; they were leaving. But unlike the two nice sophomore girls, they weren’t heading for the garbage cans. They were just moving to other tables, one here, another there, anywhere they could fit in. Away from her. Anywhere so long as it was away from her. â€Å"Mom†¦ ?† She looked down at the shut eyes with their thick black lashes, the pale face. She didn’t know how she’d made it through the rest of school today, and when she came home, her grandmother said her mom had been doing worse. Not a lot worse, nothing to be worried about, but worse. She needed peace and quiet. She’d taken some sleeping medicine. Cassie stared at the dark circles under the shut eyes. Her mother looked sick. And more than that, fragile. Vulnerable. So young. â€Å"Mom†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Her voice was pleading but hollow. Her mother stirred, a twinge of pain crossing her face. Then she was still again. Cassie felt the numbness sink in a little deeper. There was nobody to help her here. She turned and left the room. In her own bedroom, she put the chalcedony piece in her jewelry box and didn’t touch it again. So much for luck. The creaking and rattling of the house kept her up that night, too. On Thursday morning, there was a bird in her locker. A stuffed owl. It stared at her with shining round yellow eyes. A custodian happened to be passing by, and she pointed it out to him mutely, her hand shaking. He took it away. That afternoon, it was a dead goldfish. She made a funnel of a sheet of paper and scooped it out. She didn’t go near her locker for the rest of the day. She didn’t go near the cafeteria, either. And she spent lunch in the farthest corner of the library. It was there that she saw the girl again. The girl with the shining hair, the girl she’d given up on ever meeting. It was hardly surprising that Cassie hadn’t seen her at school before this moment. These days Cassie slunk around like a shadow, walking through the halls with her eyes on the ground, speaking to no one. She didn’t know why she was at school at all, except that there was nowhere else to go. And if she had seen the girl, she’d probably have run the other way. The thought of being rejected by her as Cassie was rejected by everyone else at school was unbearable. But now Cassie looked up from her table at the back of the library and saw a brightness like sunlight. That hair. It was just as Cassie remembered, impossibly long, an impossible color. The girl was facing the circulation desk, smiling and talking to the librarian. Cassie could feel the radiance of her presence from across the room. She had the wildest urge to leap up and run to the girl. And then†¦ what? She didn’t know. But the urge was almost beyond her control. Her throat ached, and tears filled her eyes. She realized she was on her feet. She would run to the girl, and then – and then†¦ Images flooded Cassie’s mind, of her mother hugging her when she was young, cleaning out a skinned knee, kissing it better. Comfort. Rescue. Love. â€Å"Diana!† Another girl was hurrying up to the circulation desk. â€Å"Diana, don’t you know what time it is? Hurry up!† She was pulling the girl with the shining hair away, laughing and waving at the librarian. They were at the door; they were gone. Cassie was left standing alone. The girl had never even glanced her way. On Friday morning Cassie stopped in front of her locker. She didn’t want to open it. But it exerted a bizarre fascination over her. She couldn’t stand feeling it there, wondering what was in it and not knowing. She dialed the combination slowly, everything too bright. The locker door opened. This time she couldn’t even scream. She felt her eyes opening, straining as wide as the stuffed owl’s. Her mouth opened in a soundless gasp. Her stomach heaved. The smell†¦ Her locker was full of hamburger. Raw and red like flesh with the skin torn off, darkening to purple where it was going bad from lack of refrigeration. Pounds and pounds of it. It smelled like†¦ Like meat. Dead meat. Cassie slammed the locker shut, but it bounced off some of the hamburger that was oozing out the bottom. She whirled and stumbled away, her vision hazing over. A hand grabbed her. For an instant she thought it was an offer of support. Then she felt her backpack being pulled off her shoulder. She turned and saw a pretty, sullen face. Malicious dark eyes. A motorcycle jacket. Deborah tossed the backpack past Cassie, and automatically Cassie whirled, following it. On the other side she saw shoulder-length blond hair. Slanted, slightly mad blue-green eyes. A laughing mouth. It was one of the roller-blade guys – the Henderson brothers. â€Å"Welcome to the jungle,† he sang. He threw the backpack to Deborah, who caught it, singing another line. Cassie couldn’t help turning around and around between them, like a cat chasing a fur mouse on a string. Tears flooded her eyes. The laughter and singing rang in her ears, louder and louder. Suddenly a brown arm thrust into her field of vision. A hand caught the backpack in midair. The laughter died. She turned to see through a blur of tears the cold, handsome face of the dark-haired guy who had stood with Faye that morning two days ago†¦ could it really be only two days ago? He was wearing another T-shirt with rolled-up sleeves and the same worn-in black jeans. â€Å"Aw, Nick,† the Henderson brother complained. â€Å"You’re wrecking our game.† â€Å"Get out of here,† Nick said. â€Å"You get out,† Deborah snarled from behind Cassie. â€Å"Doug and me were just – â€Å" â€Å"Yeah, we were only – â€Å" â€Å"Shut up.† Nick glanced at Cassie’s locker, with globs of meat still seeping out of it. Then he thrust the backpack at her. â€Å"You get out,† he said. Cassie looked into his eyes. They were dark brown, the color of her grandmother’s mahogany furniture. And like the furniture, they seemed to reflect the overhead lights back at her. They weren’t unfriendly, exactly. Just – unimpassioned. As if nothing much touched this guy. â€Å"Thank you,† she said, blinking back the tears. Something flickered in those mahogany-dark eyes. â€Å"It’s not much to thank me for,† he said. His voice was like a cold wind, but Cassie didn’t care. Clutching the backpack to her, she fled. It was in physics class that she got the note. A girl named Tina dropped it on her desk, casually, trying to look as if she were doing nothing of the sort. She went right on walking and took a seat on the other side of the room. Cassie looked at the square of folded paper as if it might burn her if she touched it. Her name was written across the front in handwriting that managed to look pompous and prim at the same time. Slowly, she unfolded the paper. Cassie, it read. Meet me in the old science building, second floor, after school. I think we can help each other. A friend. Cassie stared at it until the writing doubled. After class she cornered Tina. â€Å"Who gave you this to give to me?† The girl looked at the note disowningly. â€Å"What are you talking about? I didn’t†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes, you did. Who gave it to you?† Tina cast a hunted look around. Then she whispered, â€Å"Sally Waltman, all right? But she told me not to tell anybody. I have to go now.† Cassie blocked her. â€Å"Where’s the old science building?† â€Å"Look – â€Å" â€Å"Where is it?† Tina hissed, â€Å"On the other side of E-wing. In back of the parking lot. Now let me go!† She broke away from Cassie and hurried off. A friend, Cassie thought sarcastically. If Sally were really a friend, she’d talk to Cassie in public. If she were really a friend, she’d have stayed that day on the steps, instead of leaving Cassie alone with Faye. She’d have said, â€Å"Thanks for saving my life.† But maybe she was sorry now. The old science building didn’t look as if it had been used for a while; there was a padlock on the door, but that had been sprung. Cassie pushed on the door and it swung away from her. Inside, it was dim. She couldn’t make out any details with her light-dazzled eyes. But she could see a stairway. She climbed it, one hand on the wall to guide herself. It was when she reached the top of the stairway that she noticed something strange. Her fingers were touching something†¦ soft. Almost furry. She moved them in front of her face, peering at them. Soot? Something moved in the room in front of her. â€Å"Sally?† She took a hesitant step forward. Why wasn’t more light coming in the windows? she wondered. She could see only glowing white cracks here and there. She took another shuffling step, and another, and another. â€Å"Sally?† Even as she said it, realization finally dawned on her exhausted brain. Not Sally. Whoever, whatever was out there, it wasn’t Sally. Turn around, idiot. Get out of here. Now. She whirled, clumsily, straining her dark-adapting eyes, looking for the deeper blackness of the stairwell – And light shone suddenly, streaming into her face, blinding her. There was a creaking, wrenching noise and more light burst into the room. Through a window that had been boarded up, Cassie realized. Someone was standing in front of it now, holding a piece of wood. She turned toward the stairway again. But someone was standing there, too. Enough light shone into the room now that she could see features as the girl stepped forward. â€Å"Hello, Cassie,† said Faye. â€Å"I’m afraid Sally couldn’t make it. But maybe you and I can help each other instead.† How to cite The Secret Circle: The Initiation Chapter Seven, Essay examples