Pirated Software Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pirated Software - Essay Example In fact, it is estimated that 36% of all the software currently used is stolen (Journal of Business 2004). Instead of benefiting consumers, pirated software adds to consumer burden because the profit loss from the sales of this software is being passed on also to them by manufacturers in terms of higher prices (Piracy 2007). Software piracy is defined by Microsoft as the "mislicensing, unauthorized reproduction and illegal distribution of software, whether for personal or business use" (Protect yourself from piracy 2007). It should be noted that once an individual purchase a software from the copyright holder, the package include an end user license agreement (EULA) which provides the software a protection against copyright infringement. It is understood that once a consumer open the software and install it in his/her computer, he will adhere to the EULA. In the common knowledge, pirated software is often understood as counterfeit software which is bought from an illegal seller which reproduced it. This practice is very common in Mexico and China where software is reproduced and packaged in CD cases featuring the original design from the copyright holder. In countries where copyright infringement is often overlooked, pirated software are sold openly in markets. However, pirated software goes beyond purchasing from an illegal seller who reproduced it for a profit.

Reflection on Practice - Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Reflection on Practice - Portfolio - Essay Example , titled "The Darkest Corners," details the grim conditions and human rights abuses faced by people who are committed to psychiatric care against their will, even if they do not pose a demonstrable threat of harm to themselves or to others. "[Such individuals] are denied the right to make decisions regarding their own fate, including admission, discharge, and treatment," CHRD said in an e-mailed statement. "Forced medical treatment, violence, and mistreatment occur frequently." It said psychiatric care facilities frequently restrict or prevent patients from communicating with the outside world, including their relatives and lawyers, and assume that patients relatives have the right to direct their treatment, even if the person is still quite capable of thinking for themselves. Under the Chinese mental health system, patients have no right to independent reviews upon admission or during their time in psychiatric hospitals, and the judicial system is unwilling to handle cases brought by former psychiatric patients. The report cited the case of Fujian website editor Cheng Tianfu, who was reportedly kidnapped by a group of psychiatric healthcare workers in a van in January, 2008, while on his way to the train station to catch a train to Beijing. "During his one-month detention in the hospital, Cheng was subjected to electric shocks and forcibly medicated," CHRD said. "Only when Cheng’s family consented to his discharge was he allowed to leave the hospital." Chinas rapid economic growth and deepening social inequalities are ramping up stress across the population, with urban white-collar workers, high-flyers, and young people all seeking psychological help in unprecedented numbers, mental health professionals say. Even the medically-based psychiatric profession was virtually nonexistent until well after the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) had ended, and psychologists were almost unheard of until about a decade ago. Meanwhile, Wang Wanxing, founder of the

The Shehri Language In Southern Oman English Language Essay

The Shehri Language In Southern Oman English Language Essay The UNESCO atlas of endangered languages has listed that Shehri Language is at risk of disappearing, based on Johnston (1982). The aim of this paper is to investigate at which level of endangerment the language is. This study has been conducted based on interviews with representatives from each part of the country, and distribution of a questionnaire to females and males Shehri speakers. Basically, the research has discovered that the Shehri language is a very rich language [linguistically] and need to be studied to discover all those issues as a part of the Omani culture diversity. Moreover, the results had shown that the Shehri language face a remarkable threatened starting from the next door culture, and ends with the educational philosophy. Support and encouragement need to be done by the government to support such studies to revive the language. The Shehri speakers are and still proud of their language and next generation should continue with those manners. Key words Language death, language revive, language revilaitaztion, language change, language and culture. Chapter One Introduction This dissertation is about the Shehri language in Dhofar. It aims to investigate the language form a sociolinguistics prospectives. As it is considered as severely endangers by the UNESCO we are going to investigate it by looking the language relationship with culture and surrounding variability. Although, the UNESCO records are clear and fact such a topic is changeable and it could be varied if the language is being recorded over a time and updated. In addition, since this language is not being studied before as endangered, we shall present the history of language and country to make the image clear, because it seems that the name of the language means a lot to the Shehri speakers, and there is a remarkable debate about it. Thus, it might draw the light on what are the reasons for the language death in Southern Oman. Moreover, a short survey on what have been discussed about the language in previous studies before the research body is introduced to address the following questions: Is the shehri language is going to extinct? If so, What are the reasons for this reduction in the number of speakers? What is the best solution to revive the language? After that, the analysis of data and findings will reveal what the study accomplished. Finally, this paper will discuss what might be done and how the revive the Shehri language. The language A Sheharat is a language that is spoken is south of Oman. It is known is the mother-tongue of the people who live in the mountain of Dhofar southern Oman. Moreover, since this language was and still the language of the people in the mountains of Dhofar , people from Salalah the capital of Dhofar call it Jabbali or Jabblat which comes from Jabbal in Arabic which means mountain. Moreover, Higgins (2010: 3) stated that the communist-backed tribal guerrillas controlled the whole of the Jebel Dhofar region (jebel [English spellings vary] is the Arabic word for mountain, hill, or slope). None-Shehri speakers describe the language of its speaker as Jabbalies or Gabbalies. When they say that this language is Jabbali it is due to translating the word Shehar (the origin name of the language which is mountain) into Arabic Jabbal, therefore, they call it Jabbali. According to Hetzron (1997:2) The Jabbali language received many names in the scientific literature, the most common of which being Ã…Â  xauri, Ehkili, Qarawi, Ã…Â  heri. In context, if any person is going to the mountain and he would name it he would say Im going to the mountain Im going to Shehar and in the city language Arabic it is going to be something like Im going to Jabbal. A Shehri (2000) has described his tribe to be the ancient tribe in the South the South Arabian Peninsula claiming that the language is named according to his tribal name, but this study revealed that the name Shehri coming from the name of the mountain in the language itself. In addition, Johnstone (1982) in his introduction was clarifying all those issues as a message from him for the important impact on the language. He stated that Tribal origins mean much less in modern Oman, and the large scale re-settlement has tended to blur these ancient distinctions. The name Jibbali, however, has the advantage that it avoids the mention of the term Shehri, with its tendency to stress old social differences between Dhofar tribes. In this view, This tells us that the different names that we have for the same language are common, because each person is describing it from his culture and language. But there is no doubt that the ancients speakers call it Shehrat or Shehri language. There are some people in Dhofar who do not believe that this is a language. According to them it is an accent or a dialect and the term language is something cannot be describing it. Their assumption comes from the idea that if the language is not written it is an accent, while if we look at the Shehri it is a language that contains it is own phonetics, vocabulary and grammar. At the same time it is not a part from any other language until now so they can call it an accent for X language. In fact, the Shehri have three different accents in Dhofar. This is due to the geographical variation in South of Oman. The most known part is the central part since it is closer to the city Salalah Johnstone (1981). Moreover Peterson (2004:256) and also Johnstone (1981) divided the mountains of Dhofar into three main areas; Jabal al-Qara overlooks Salalah at the centre, while the remote and largely inaccessible Jabal Samhan dominates the east, and the equally forbidding and barren Jabal Qamar commands the west. This might lead us the Shehri variant is based on those main inhabited places in Dhofar came from. The number of Shehri speakers is 5,000 according to Johnstone (1975, 94). This is taken during a war in Dhofar which force many people from the mountains to deported to Yemen as the closest country to Dhofar as looking for refuge from the war and a better place to lead their war since the government controlled the whole area in Dhofar. After that, in 1993 according to Omani national census the number of people who are living in the mountain is 25,000. At that time, the Shehri language was the first language in the mountains of Dhofar. On the other hand, Al Aghbari (2011) reported that the number of Shehri speakers are more than 147,000 people. Since the Omani Census are not counting the number of speakers of each language in the country; the number of Shehri speakers are not being officially known yet. AL-Shehri (2008) claim that the Shehri language consists of 33 letters with 6 extra phonemic sounds which leave the language with 39 phonemes. On the other hand, if we look at the letter and how they sound we might feel that they are similar to Arabic. Because it is not a written language [yet] people from other tribes and places in Dhofar tries to speak Shehri and at the same time they are using the same Arabic letters that they are used to. At this stage, the Shehri language starts to change and nowadays people hardly use the 6 extra sounds and replacing them with the normal Arabic phonemes. This doesnt mean that the Shehri language is a partial form Arabic. The vocabulary and language structures in Shehri are totally different, but the sounds might be the same since they are sharing the same area. The history of the country Dhofar was a very rich country in the trading market with other ancient nations. According to Zarins (1997:51) Dhofar province is the Atlantis of the Sand and speculated that it might have a trading center in southern of Oman. Moreover, he continues saying that Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Strabo, and other ancient authors, though not specifically mentioning Ubar, gave brief accounts of cities in southern Arabia that market resins of frankincense and myrrh trees. While it is certain that the people of the Dhofar area grew rich trading these commodities, it would appear that the city of Ubar was an Arabian Nights fantasy. Furthermore, Dharmananda, (2003) confirms that the Myrrh and frankincense trading market reached china before 973 A.D as a medicine and also, in Egypt for embalming the bodies of the Pharaohs. Besides, Dharmananda (2003) believed that Myrrh and frankincense, traded throughout the Middle East at least since 1500 B.C. Therefore, it might be seen now clearly that the his tory of the area south of Oman was famous and strong enough to contend the Egyptian and the Chains empires. Such a nation must have a language, power, economic and financial system to compete such nations,otherwise the south Arabian Peninsula is going to be a an Egyptian or Chinese colony. After those glory days in southern the Arabian Peninsula lots of changes happen to ancient people. In terms of the economy and their statues worldwide as well. Recently, before the 1970, Oman was ruled by Sultan Said Bin Taimor (1932-1970) in which many people do not have the right to be educated, receiving medical care or even travel from Oman without his direct permission. This was the Sultans policy that results in Rebellion in Dhofar from 1968-1975. Dhofar was the capital of the south and the modern part of it. The Sultan of Oman, Said bin Tamur, ruled like a feudal lord: No Omani was allowed to leave the country, or even his home village, without the Sultans explicit permission. He banned all symbols of the decadent twentieth century From medical drugs and spectacles to book and radios and he flogged his subjects for adopting Western dress Ladwig (2008:66). Moreover, Higgins (2010:3) stated there were no roads, no schools, no hospitals, and no development of water resources for home or agricultural use. This was the situation all over Oman but with some emphasizes on Dhofar as the special place for the Sultan Said bin Taimor. According to Ladwig (2008:66) Dhofar was the Sultans personal domain, where he resided in seclusion year round, despite the fact that the nations capital was 500 miles north of Muscat. Although he took a Dhofari wife, who was the mother of his son, the Sultan disliked and distrusted his Dhofari subjects, the Jebelis most of all. It is clearly seen that all those issues happened since Sultan Said Bin Taimor taken the rule of the country made the situation in Oman and especially in Dhofar difficult to be controlled. Therefore, the Rebellion movement started from Dhofar (1968) with the help of the Soviets and China. Until, 1970 when the Sultan Qaboos the Only son of Sultan Said bin Taimor take the rule of the country and start to fight the counterinsurgency in southern of Oman, and make the promises to rebuild the country again. My people, my brothers, yesterday it was complete darkness and with the help of God, tomorrow will be a new dawn in Muscat, Oman and its people (Sultan Qaboos first speech 1970). According to Gulvady (2009) The Sultan Qaboos government has focused on economic development. He first addressed infrastructure needs, such as building roads and highways, as well as education. He is now focusing on sustainable development, diversification, industrialization, and privatization. The schools were built with a great care; hospitals, Universities and colleges to ensure that each person in Oman get the chance to be learnt and to be educated. Certainly, according the Ministry of Education (2012) the number of schools rose from 3 schools in 1970 teaching the Holy Quran and Arabic language only, to 1053 schools by 2010 teaching modern subjects as Mathematics, Sciences, Arabic, English, History, and Religion. In addition, Universities and colleges were established all over Oman. The main University is the Sultan Qaboos University in Muscat. Also, the biggest cities in Oman were provided with an applied sciences college and a technical college as well. Therefore, the use of Arabic language gets greater; while the Shehri language got a few chances to be practiced without being taught. To conclude, the past of Oman was dark and full of blood from the Rebellion movement against Sultan Qabooss father Said bin Taimor. All those promises by the Sultan Qaboos has been achieved in 40 years is something difficult and almost impossible. Thank to God and the hands of the Omani generations who learnt and trained under the government of Oman this path was easier.Now Omani students can be found in the world famous Universities studying and learning to continuing what the Sultan Qaboos has begun. The new regime, though undoubtedly good for the people, did lead to the decline of the Shehri language. Therefore, it might be worth to reorganize the Educational Philosophy in Oman. Chapter Two Literature review: During the last decades lots of changes happened to Oman, precisely Dhofari people and their language. The changes appear in the vocabulary choice, pronunciation, structure, words are disappearing and not being used. Marshall (2004:1) claims that investigators have shown renewed interest in the loss of non-standard varieties and the process of standardization. This has given important insights into the types of geographical area, social network, and social group in which language changes originate and mechanism involves in the process of diffusion. In addition, McMahon (1994:8) assured that we should never lose sight of the fact that language are spoken by people for purposes of communication; consequently, speakers change languages, although that is not to say that they are necessarily conscious of doing so, or that they intend to make changes. Perhaps speakers of any language hold the responsibility toward the changes happened at their time, but also the political decisions made by the country could play a positive or negative role. Moreover, considering the fact that the Shehri language is not a written language this risk gets greater. McCabe (2011:262) explains that There is no clear reason why languages change as extensively as they do; there are several explanations which cover various aspects of change, in the case of sound change we have seen that ease of articulation has historically been a motivator. With respect to sound change, it is important to mention the impact that the written language has had on language change. Moreover, a tremendous change took place during the last 40 years in Oman , generally, and Dhofar region result in having a new generation which differs from the elderly people in the way of thinking, learning, speaking and everything. McCabe (2011:263) assured that often young people use language differently than their parents, in the same way that they dress differently and listen to different music, in order to create an identity which sets them apart from their parents generation. Taking into account that any changes might be referred back to it after a time if it is written, but if it was only a spoken language in the community this means that there is no source for the language except those young generations. Besides, Beard (2004) believes that studying a language change consists of two parts, internal and external approach. According to him an internal approach to studying language change looks at such areas as vocabulary, spelling, meaning of words, grammar and compares usag e in old text with stage found todayBut if we look at the external aspects of this text, viewing it more as a social document, it seems to belong to different age Bread (2004:4). The Shehri language has been discussed in some books, Journals, TV interviews, and dissertations. According many people in this study lots of this information was presented wrongly. Many of them might be a personal believe or just a way to relate this language to their own purposes. For example, Ali AL Shehri books where he claims that this language is related to them as a tribe was totally unacceptable for people from other tribes in Dhofar. According to Al Shehri (2000:42) the Shahara tribes have preserved the most ancient Arab language (the Shehri), the traditions, folklore, proverbs, names of ancient tribes, ancient God names and much other ancient Arab culture. This assumption made by Ali made other people argue with him as relating the language to his tribe. At the same time, as other tribes and the government did not agree with what Ali mention in his books; none of his books were published in Oman to ovoid sedition between the people in Dhofar. Then, in (2005) Mohammed Al Mashani studied the language comparing it to languages such as the Arabic, the Old Yemeni language (Saba), and the modern dialects in Yemen, claiming that the Shehri language is the language of Hamyer the old kingdom southern the Arab Peninsula. Mohammed also brings a new name for the language and named with The Modern Hamyer Dhofari Tongue. It is clearly seen that the name of the language became the main issue for scholars and the people in Dhofar. Other studies such as Hayward et. Al. (1988), Johnstone (1972) (1980a) (1980a) (1981), Al Hakli (2008), Al-Shahri (1994), Hayward, Al-TabÃ…Â «ki (1988), Hofstede (1998) Makhashen (2009) focused their studies on the origin of the language and its people, and the grammatical aspects of the language only. This will provide a foundation for any research in the future to be built and based on them, if they were true and still have the same findings which is a topic need to be investigated again. However, moving from the battle of the name of the Shehri language and taking the UNESCOs records about languages that are in danger of disappearing; the Shehri language might not transform fully from the elderly generation to the younger ones. According to the UNESCO atlas of the most endangered languages (table 1) this stage is severely endangered. In other words, it means that language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves UNESCO (2010). This leaves the language with only two stages from being extinct. Degree of endangerment Intergenerational Language Transmission Safe The language is spoken by all generations; intergenerational transmission is uninterrupted >> not included in the Atlas Vulnerable Vulnerable Most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains (e.g., Home) Definitely endangered Definitely endangered Children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home Severely endangered Severely endangered The language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves Critically endangered Critically endangered The youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak the language partially and infrequently Extinct Extinct There are no speakers left >> included in the Atlas if presumably extinct since the 1950s Table Degree of endangerment Adapted from Atlas of the Worlds Languages in Danger. Moreover, Al Hakli (2008) made a mini-dictionary for Shehri language joining the Shehri words to their meaning in Arabic. But until now the number of speakers is still declining. Which means writing a dictionary was not the solution to revive the language at this stage. Therefore, the questions pointed out to look for the solution and to investigate why the number of the speakers is declined. According to Romine and Nettle (2000:7) language shift and death occur as a response to pressures of various types-social, cultural, economic, and even military-on a community. Furthermore, Harrison (2007: 8) stresses that language death typically begins with political or social discrimination against a language or its speakers. This may take the form of official state politics to suppress speech, or it may be benign neglect. Therefore, it might be the reason that there are other variables controlling the number of speakers of this language. Mufwene (2006:2) stated that language death starts when speakers consulted with each other and decided collectively to shift suddenly to another language. This leads us to the beginning and taking in our consideration that Dhofar region has been benediction with the revolutionary movement by the Sultan Qaboos and many schools, Hospitals, Airports were built in a short time. Therefore, the Arabic language takes place in their houses and daily life. The new generation was introduced to schools that delivers everything to them in Arabic. However, many families had migrated from the mountain to the city to look for a better way of living and a job that helps them to overcome the hardship of life in their villages. Peoples language might be affected by the surrounding environment. Also, the language that is nearby lots of variables that might influence it such as economy, geography, the power of the next door language are at more risk of being disappeared. Moreover, language shift and dea th can begin by start learning the next door language. For example: The Kwegu language in southwest Ethiopia is spoken by 500 people only Lydall (1982:22). In addition, according to the UNSECO world atlas the number of Kwegu speakers declines in 1998 to reach 103 speaker only. Furthermore, Dimmendaal (1989:17) mention some of the daily activities practiced by the Kwegu ancient as they exchange honey with the overlord groups in the same area so they will be able to liveKwegu speak both their own language and the language of the Musri and Bodi while the latter tend not to speak Kwegu. So, learning other groups language was the effect of such discrimination in the society, therefore, their first language [Kwegu] will have less chances to be used. On this view, the Shehri speakers are shifting from their language to Arabic and this is due to many facts already mentioned above. When the next generation does not believe in their language and start to shift toward a new language which is stronger than their language, obviously, no one will speak with it and it is only a matter of years until the Shehri speakers reduction end with it is extinct. Dimmendaal (1989:18) points out that it is only when they start interacting with neighbouring groups whose cultures are viewed as more prestigious that their own language became particularly threatened The Weyto probably gave up their earlier language this way. Darmon (2010:2) argued that the Weyto Because the Weyto people do not own lands, they are living in extremely precarious conditions. They build their huts wherever the government allows them to, knowing that they can be asked to move at any time Without professing to be Muslim, they are usually not recognized as true Muslims by oth ers, maybe because some of them keep on believing in spirits associated with paganism. Therefore, Darmon thinks that such feelings towards your own language might lead you to give up using it and shift it to a stronger language in the society. Eventually, this language shift will result in language death within years. The language death is when a language disappears and becomes extinct. In other words, when people stop using their language or forced to do so. There are types for language death cited by Tsitsipis (1989:182) first, sudden death: the language disappears because almost all of its speakers die or killed (example: Tasmanian). Secondly, Radical Death when language loses is rapid and usually due to severe political repression, often with genocide, to the extent that speakers stop speaking the language out of self defense, a survival strategy for example: Languages of El Salvador. Then, Gradual Death which is due to a gradual shift to the dominant language in language-contact situations. Finally, the Bottom-to-top Death, where that language is lost in small steps first like homes and families and then moved when the government stop using it, it is the opposite on the Top-Bottom language death. Regardless to the reason for the language shift it is clearly seen that it is only a matter of ti me until language shift become language extinction. To conclude, it might be more beneficial for reviving endangered languages that writers and scholars studying the Shehri language should keep their focus first at the language itself rather than fighting against each other in bringing a new name each time. Since the Shehri language is not documented yet, it only exists in the peoples mind, therefore, we are losing a huge amount of the language and country heritage and culture each time a person dies. As what Harrison describes when we lose a language, we lose a culture, intellectual wealth, a work of art Harrison (2007:7). Chapter Three Methodology This part of the paper presents the methodology and how it had been designed to accomplish the aims and goals. First, this section will clarify the problem clearly. Then, the types of data, participants, questionnaires and interviews are going to be discussed separately. The problem Since the Shehri language is being listed officially by the UNESCO as [severely endangered] this research will be conducted to investigate if the Shehri language speakers are really under the risk of abandoning speaking their own language are not. Firstly, by looking at the number of speakers of the language and to see how it varies from the past. Then, through looking at the changes that happened to the language. According to Professor Miyaoka the director of The Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim Project Particularly in case of moribund and isolated languages with speakers rapidly diminishing in number, of which there are quite a few in the Pacific Rim, we are obliged to emphasize documentation with good and minute analyses which could be achieved only with the help of speakers having deep linguistic insights. The Shehri is a language that is not written yet or documented officially. Therefore, when each person of the Shehri speakers dies an amount of the language goes with him. Similarly, the Arabic language was not written until people start to write it after the death of Prophet Mohammed in order to preserve the holy Quran from being changed and distorts. Before this stage the Arabic language was only exist in their minds and transformed from a generation to another by communication with each other. In the Shehri context, the Shehri language is not written, not fully transformed from a generation to another, people start to avoid using it and preferred to use English or Arabic to show how they are educated. Nettle and Romaine (2000:5) insist that language might be regarded as an activity, system of communication between human beings. A language is not a self-sustaining entity. It can only exist where there is a community to speak and transmit it. In addition, immigration from the mountain to the city provides a space for the two cultures to merge. Thus, some of the young speakers of the language are not able to speak or even understand it. This will result in having a new generation of Shehri speakers that are not able to speak their language. Nettle and Romaine (2000:4) assured that languages not passed on to the younger generation will eventually die out. Since the Shehri newer generation are not able to speak the language, therefore, the language is not going to transmit and will extinct. Types of data The Data collection part was separated into two main parts; the first part was to update the information about the language. Moreover, to explore and discover why this language is not being studied yet. Also, the main part of this section was to see if such a kind of researches is going to be accepted by the Shehri speakers and tribe leader or not. Since, there has been an assumption that the reduction of speakers outstanding for not having a written form of the language; this assumption is being abandoned with the Halkis basic dictionary were a space is being provided for the Arabic speakers in Dhofar and Oman to learn some vocabulary and sentence in Shehri. Therefore, this result leads us to wonder about this continues reduction in the Sheahri speakers. Through meetings with scholars such as Dr. Ali AL Shehri and Khalid AL Maashani, both are Sahehari native speakers, they ensure that the abstention of the new generation is clearly seen these days in their daily life conversation and usage. This leads us to the second assumption of this study. Second part, was the main data collection in which the aim was: First, to see the what extend the Shehri speakers use their language?. Then, do they find any difficulty in understanding old peoples language? Finally, are they aware that their language is at risk of extinction? At the same time to see what they might recommend for their language. To make the aim of this paper more achievable the questions were made easier to the Shehries to answer by shortening the questions and translate them into Arabic. As what Harrison discovers in dealing with endangered languages in Australia Charlie was not a talkative man, and most of our questions got monosyllabic answers: yeah or no. But once he got to talking, Charlie also shared stories of this place -learned from his father- of the Turkey Dreaming and of the Rainbow Serpent (Harrison: 2010:98). Therefore, involving their language could provide a better communication environment in this research. Since they are not used to such studies which was one of the obstacles of gathering the information from them. Moreover, such a research must consider respecting the traditional rules in the Dhofar were females are not allowed to have a face to face conversation with strangers. Therefore, some volunteers from various tribes in Dhofar helped by giving the permission to distribute the questionnaire among their families as a part of their wish to revive the language. This issue but this research at risk of having unreliable data. So, the research methodology needs to look for a strategy to make the data more valid and reliable. This research conducted using both methods of data quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative data are represented in the questionnaire answers and responds, while the qualitative data is taken from interviewing the participant and the answers from the open-ended questionnaire answers in this study. Such kind of data collection has been described by (Jick 1979) in which he looks at using two or more methods of data collection can be called triangulation. According to Jick (1979:1) It is largely a vehicle for cross validation when two or more distinct methods are found to be congruent and yield comparable data. In other words, using such methods might be the reason to accomplish the validity of the research. In addition, the research will get the chance to look at each part of his study from more than one point. In addition, Olsen (2004) assured that triangulation is defined as the mixing of data or methods so that diverse viewpoints or standpoints cast light upon a topic. Considering the advantages and it is drawbacks combining the two methods might help the researcher as to make his own conclusions about a topic especially if we are talking about sociological issues. In addition, Spicer (2012:484) stated that it is an approach to combining two or more quantitative and/or qualitative methods in addressing a research question in order to cross-check results for consistency and to offset any bias of single research method. In this context, this research tries to use the triangulation method so it could reach the best, real, and representative data by using both quantitative qualitative data and making use of previous studies about the Shehri l

Augustines God Vs. Epictetus God :: essays research papers

At first glance, I was immediatly inclined to argue in epictetus' favor, because it pains me to argue that Christianity is good for anybody. In the following paragraphs, i will contrast the God of Epictetus, and the God of Augustine, and in the end, my stand will be clear. Epictetus and Augustine both identify God on basic level. Epictetus says, "Where the essence of God is, there too is the essence of good. What is the essence of God?......Right Reason? Certainly. Here then, without more ado, seek the essence of good." He says strive for goodness, live in conformity with it, and you will find God. God is the vital force that creates all things and the cosmic intellegence that governs it from within. Augustine says: "Where I found truth, there i found my God, who is truth itself." He says strive for truth and understanding...In loving God, we love truth. Persons can come to know truth though inner experience and conviction, he holds that you can't obtain true knowledge without faith. you must have faith in God, who is the essence of all truth. Both philosophers address man's powerlessness in the face of God. Epictetus asserted that humans are basically limited and irrational beings, but that the universe, ruled by God through pure reason, is perfect. Because human beings can neither know nor control their destiny, they must cease striving for the attainment of worldly ends and pleasures and instead calmly accept the fact of their own powerlessness before fate. The only thing in a person's power is their response to events or outlook, namely, their morality. Augustine believed faith preceded reason. He believed people are good, but not perfect. But in Augustinean theology, each person is predestined to either heaven, or to fry like bacon, and there's nothing you can do about it. Salvation is a "free gift" with purchase, but only to every 7,000th caller. This is where i would think morality means squat. If you know God decided when you were born whether or not you were going to heaven, nothing you do makes any difference. You can step all over everbody, and run with scissors and it doesn't matter. If you go to hell, you were going there anyway. If you're going to heaven, you've got a few good stories to tell when you get there. On top of all this, Augustine says that no human mind can penetrate the mystery of of God's wisdom.

Computer Addiction Essay

Computer addiction is a mental illness which causes the excessive use of computers to the extent that it interferes with daily life. Excessive use may explain problems in social interaction, mood, personality, work ethic, relationships, thought processes, or sleep deprivation. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not include a diagnosis for such a disease. The term †²computer addiction†² originated long before the Internet. Some people develop bad habits in their computer use that cause them significant problems in their lives. The types of behavior and negative consequences are similar to those of known addictive disorders. Effects Excessive computer use may result in, or occur with: Lack of social interaction. Using the computer for pleasure, gratification, or relief from stress. Feeling irritable and out of control or depressed when not using it. Spending increasing amounts of time and money on hardware, software, magazines, and computer-related activities. Neglecting work, school, or family obligations. Lying about the amount of time spent on computer activities. Risking loss of career goals, educational objectives, and personal relationships. Failing at repeated efforts to control computer use. A cause for many of the above-mentioned effects may be that computer games do not stimulate the release of neurotransmitters responsible for feelings of satisfaction and relaxation, such as oxytocin and endorphin, in the same way that real world activities do. Bibliography †Exhaustion’ most likely cause of death’, 2007, Chinese gamer dies after three-day session , vnunet.com, [Online], Available: http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2198850/chinese-man-dies-three-days [2009, April 14]. ‘About online gamers anoymous’ 2009, , OLG, [Online], Available: http://www.olganon.org/ [2009, April 14]. Block, 2008, ‘Issues for DSM-V: Internet Addiction’ Available: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/165/3/306 [2009, April 14]. ‘Chinese suicide shows addiction dangers Online life proves too appealing†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ n.d., , Play.tm, [Online], Available: http://play.tm/news/5928/chinese-suicide-shows-addiction-dangers/ [2009, April 14]. ‘Experts debate internet addiction’ 2006 , Nov. 14 Available: http://www.physorg.com/news82749930.html [2009, April 14]. ‘How computer addiction works’ 2009, Available: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/computer-addiction3.htm [2009, April 14]. Orzack, n.d., ‘Computer addiction services’ Available: http://www.computeraddiction.com/peter.htm [2009, April 14].

Zion National Park

All-throughout my young childhood I have experienced camping and hiking. It is something that I loved when I was a child, and still love to this very day. From 24 mile hikes in the Grand Canyon, swimming in the pools of Havasupai falls to my favorite, hiking in Zion National Park. Zion is a marvel to behold. The park consists of huge massive canyon walls that soar to the sky. I have walked all-throughout Zion and have experienced it first hand, it is indescribable until you see it first hand.The walls are of mostly sandstone which vary in many beautiful colors. One thing that I can say, is during sunrise and sunset the canyon walls look like a glittering diamond of assorted colors glowing in the sun.. The park is considered to have some of the most elaborate canyons in the United States. Zion consists of many canyons, high Plateau and mesas. The National Park is located at the edge the Colorado Plateau. It is here that one can notice that the rock layers have been changed, eroded to what is called, â€Å"The Grand Staircase†.The mazes of canyons and Plateau’s did not just form over night, but through millions of years of erosion and change. Scientist speculate that Zion was nothing but a flat basin close to sea level. As millions of years of sand, mud and lose gravel eroded change became noticeable. Streams and wind carried these lose materials and dropped them into sections or layers. On one of my research websites the author writes, â€Å"The sheer weight of these accumulated layers caused the basin to sink, so that the top surface always remained near sea level.As the land rose and fell and as the climate changed, the depositional environment fluctuated from shallow seas to coastal plains to a desert of massive windblown sand. This process of sedimentation continued until over 10,000 feet of material accumulated. †(http://www. scienceviews. com/parks/zion. html What I have come to realize is that the features of Zion will change as time passes. In 1000 years Zion could be a completely different place due to weathering and erosion. On my last visit to the Zion National park I noticed that there was a strange criss cross patterns in the stone.I was young and naive and thought that it was a man made phenomenon. Now however after much research I discovered what really caused the patterns. It is known as the Checkerboard Mesa and is made up of Sandstone. The checkered board like patterns are a direct cause of cross bedding, and also different layers of windblown sand. Another reason for the patterns are from years and years of erosion from the rock surface. Also weathering and the wetting and drying of the rock could have possibly caused the checkered cracks.Answers are everywhere we just have to look for them. Another grand feature of the Zion National park is the enticing Mt. Camel Tunnel. The Geology of Zion is very diverse and as I mentioned earlier is constantly changing. A perfect example of this is the Camel Tunn el. The tunnel is 1. 1 miles long and was created in the early 1900s. The first thing that I find amazing about this is that this was done during the early 1990s. This would prove to be very difficult today yet over a hundred years earlier people were cutting through 3000 foot think sandstone!On another reserach page it reads, â€Å"The Zion-Mt. Carmel Tunnel was a network of scaffolding, set up on the east side of the tunnel going across Pine Creek which flows below. Blasting was used to enlarge the hole and railcars hauled off debris. On the tunnel's south side, work was not an easy task because the drop-off of the canyon below is 800 feet. The whole process is considered a technological wonder and creating the Switchbacks, leading up to the tunnel, was even more difficult. †(http://www. zionnational-park. om/zion-national-park-geology. htm) My personal opinion is that there is nothing more beautiful then the world around us. I feel that everyone should visit Zion, or any o ther national park and witness the true beauty of the natural out door environment. The world is an all most living thing. It is constantly changing and becoming something new. Our existence on the earth is only a splint second compared to the geographic history of our earth. We should all strive to except this fact and learn about the natural changing world around us.

Contrib.of paint. in Mid. Age essays

Contrib.of paint. in Mid. Age essays The development and contrubutions of painting in the Middle Ages Cimabue, an Italian painter, was the first famous painter of the city of Florence. Cimabue's painting of the Madonna Enthroned is painted in a traditional style based on the medieval art of the Byzantine Empire. His faces and figures are rendered stiffly, and placed vertically without size relationship to the figures around them. Cimabue's works have great personal force and effect, even though the forms are traditional. Giotto was the most important painter of the 1300's. His paintings of the Madonna Enthroned was painted approximately twenty years after Cimabue and shows a slight contrast to the painters that came before him. Giotto painted the throne of the Madonna with open sides and showed two bearded men looking through the openings. In this way, he gave the feeling that the scene is not flat, but a sense of spacial depth and perspective. The angel's gazes are more expressive and the Virgin resembles an actual woman. His realistic style revolutionized painting in Italy and the natural figures in his works foreshadowed great changes in art. The Limbourg brothers were noted illuminated manuscript painters. Their most famous manuscript was a prayer book called Les Tres Riches Heures. In the vividly colored illuminations, beautiful lords and ladies amuse themselves while servants tend to the guests. These illustrations rise above all others of their time with intricately designed crowd scenes and exquisite detail. Hieronymus Bosch was a Dutch painter who is best known for his triptychs(three paneled paintings). Many of his paintings show landscapes full of distorted people, fantastic demons, and unidentifiable objects. Bosch's largest and most complex work is a triptych called The Garden of Earthly Delights which displays three interrelated scenes organized around the creation, fall, and damnation of the human race. The left pa...

New Role for Women in the Early Church Essays

New Role for Women in the Early Church Essays New Role for Women in the Early Church Essay New Role for Women in the Early Church Essay Church History I Theme Report New Role for Women in the Early Church This theme report analyzes how Jesus sent a new revolutionary message laying the groundwork for the elevation of the social status of women in the early church. The cultural norm of the day was that women were restricted to subordinate roles in society and the church. Jesus broke boundaries in his dealing with women and led his disciples to challenge those same boundaries as they took over leadership of the church. Luke’s Gospel story of Jesus in the home of Martha and Mary tells how Jesus was on the side f recognizing the full personhood of women. Mary’s sitting at Jesus feet in Luke 10:39 shows a violation of the social norms of the day. â€Å"She had a sister called Mary, who sat at the Lord’s feet listening to what he said. † Lesly Massey states in her book, Women and the New Testament, of critical importance is the fact that Jesus would be willing to sit in conversation with women in such a manner, or that he might have instructed them privately as a rabbi might instruct a promising student. This very fact, regardless of the spiritual depth of their talk, reveals an attitude toward women which was ncommon among Jews of Jesus day and reflective of his revolutionary manner. Massey asserts that Jesus is rejecting the second-class status of women in his society because according to the social laws of the day, only men were supposed to sit at the feet of a religious teacher and listen to his teaching. Women were supposed to stay out of sight and appear only to wait on the men. Jesus clearly rejects this double standard laying the groundwork for the elevation of women to a higher status in the new Christian church. According to the Gospels, the world was changing in 1st century Palestine, Martha and Mary represented the growing number of people who were responding to Jesus teachings. Both sisters attentiveness to Jesus as a guest in their house was not only an act of hospitality, but also a sign that they sought to understand his teachings. Their attentiveness shows the sisters as part of the movement as learners. † 1 The take away here is that this story does not show subordination of women and it shows boundaries being broken. Another insight on the same story with a focus on Martha is Satoko Yamaguchi’s Mary and Martha: Women in the World of Jesus, Yamaguchi identifies Martha as the leader of a house-church, that is, someone who cares for the practicalities needed for Jesus and his disciples to meet at her home. According to Yamaguchi â€Å"the context of the scripture implies that she frequently welcomed traveling missionaries and gave them food, shelter and possibly even financial support. In other words, Martha was one of the first church administrators (in Christian parlance, ad-minister is taken to mean in the service of ministry). Scholars now recognize that without women such as Martha to provide material support, the traveling ministry of Jesus and his followers could not have happened as effectively. † 2 Another theologian, Bonnie Thurston in Women in the New Testament says: â€Å"as I read the Gospels, under the reign of God, men and women are intended to work together in a discipleship of equals†. Thurston cites Constance Parvey’s essay â€Å"The Theology and Leadership of Women In The New Testament† in Religion and Sexism and states that â€Å"The New Testament gives two messages with regard to women. First it presents a theology of equality in Christ, a vision of equality on the theological level. But in practical parenesis many New Testament passages support woman’s subordination; that is they present a status quo ethic on the social level. Part of the power of Jesus’ proclamation of the reign of God had to do with the fact that it ushered in an entirely new mode of human existence. The fact that Jesus broke boundaries in his dealing with people led his disciples to challenge those same boundaries in their dealings with each other†. 3 Summary In the earliest days of the church, Jesus was taking steps to elevate women above their subordinate roles which was the not the cultural norm of his time. In Luke’s story of Jesus at the house of Martha and Mary, Jesus broke boundaries and broke with the status quo. The two sisters were full participants in his ministry and study. Mary elevated herself above her subordinate role by sitting at the feet of Jesus, clearly a sign of the elevation of women to a higher status in the new Christian church. Martha becomes a church leader by offering her house as a home church and by assisting in the traveling ministry of Jesus and his entourage. This story and the assertions of theologians quoted above shows Jesus breaking boundaries and breaking the cultural norms of the day which was to put women in a subordinate role unequal to men. 1 Lesly F. Massey, Women and the New Testament: An Analysis of Scripture in Light of New Testament Era Culture (Jefferson, N. C. : McFarland Co. , 1977, 19 2 Satoko Yamaguchi, Mary and Martha: Women in the World of Jesus (Maryknoll, N. Y. : Orbis Books, 2002, 46-47. 3 Bonnie Thurston, Women in the New Testament Questions and Commentary (New York, N. Y. : Crossroad Publishing Company, 1998, 160-161.

The Cell - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The Cell - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells What Are Cells? Life is both wonderful and majestic. Yet for all of its majesty, all organisms are composed of the fundamental unit of life, the cell. The cell is the simplest unit of matter that is alive. From the unicellular bacteria to multicellular animals, the cell is one of the basic organizational principles of biology. Lets look at some of the components of this basic organizer of living organisms. Eukaryotic Cells and Prokaryotic Cells There are two primary types of cells: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are called so because they have a true nucleus. The nucleus, which houses DNA, is contained within a membrane and separated from other cellular structures. Prokaryotic cells, however, have no true nucleus. DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not separated from the rest of the cell but coiled up in a region called the nucleoid. Classification As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include archaeans and bacteria. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists (ex. algae). Typically, eukaryotic cells are more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells. On average, prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller in diameter than eukaryotic cells. Cell Reproduction Eukaryotes grow and reproduce through a process called mitosis. In organisms that also reproduce sexually, the reproductive cells are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually and some through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical daughter cells. Some eukaryotic organisms also reproduce asexually through processes such as budding, regeneration, and parthenogenesis. Cellular Respiration Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms get the energy they need to grow and maintain normal cellular function through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration has three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport. In eukaryotes, most cellular respiration reactions take place within the mitochondria. In prokaryotes, they occur in the cytoplasm and/or within the cell membrane. Comparing Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells There are also many distinctions between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structures. The following table compares the cell organelles and structures found in a typical prokaryotic cell to those found in a typical animal eukaryotic cell. Cell Structure Prokaryotic Cell Typical Animal Eukaryotic Cell Cell Membrane Yes Yes Cell Wall Yes No Centrioles No Yes Chromosomes One long DNA strand Many Cilia or Flagella Yes, simple Yes, complex Endoplasmic Reticulum No Yes (some exceptions) Golgi Complex No Yes Lysosomes No Common Mitochondria No Yes Nucleus No Yes Peroxisomes No Common Ribosomes Yes Yes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell Structures

Barclays Dark Pool Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Barclays Dark Pool - Essay Example Another lesson that can be learned is the importance of transparency and accountability in a company. Fraudulent activities can last for a while but in the long run they always get detected. Failure of an organization to be transparent can be costly in terms of finances and reputation. The case for instance discouraged retail investors from investing in the company due to the tainted reputation. Broker dealers such as Royal Bank of Canada, Deutsche Bank and Investment Technology Group cut ties with the company’s dark pool system (McCrank and Slater 1). This already is an indication that the company will incur significant losses. Having the best interests of customers at heart is very important for a company. This is yet another lesson to learn. According to the case, Barclays deceived its customers that they would be protected against high-frequency traders while in a real sense the traders were being favoured (McCrank and Slater 1). Breach of trust is a costly endeavour as witnessed in the case. Ethical breaches are also costly based on the fact that some employees were fired after the case implicated some individuals. McCrank, John and Steve Slater. â€Å"New York attorney general accuses Barclays of dark pool fraud.† Reuters.com. Web 17 April 2015.

The ICT Industry in Canada Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

The ICT Industry in Canada - Term Paper Example According to the research findings the ICT industry within any societal setting is vital in ensuring progress to the economy to deliver an update on the necessary resources. The resources that are under consideration issue support to the political and economic sustenance. The desire to analyze the ICT provision of any company is attributed to the requirements presented in identifying the main contributions of the entity. The ICT industry has been a leading form of intellectual property in the modern century with a provision issued to mark the features that have contributed to its advancement. Canadian ICT sector has made leading developments in creating stability in the economy, while maintain a noticeable balance in the principles that are applied to create sustainability in the economy. The ICT industry in Canada has presented numerous developments in the generation of GDP, and measures to maintain its effectiveness need to be implemented to realize its contributions. Canada had es tablished its economy as the leader of the information advances, and recent advancements have seen it fail to maintain its status among the developed powers that are capable of offering sustainability within the ICT sector. Policies to balance the ICT industry with the developmental inputs presented within its economy are the factors that might revive the industry. The major composer of the industry has been articulated to comprise minor companies. These are an estimated 33, 000 firms, 80% of the number specializing in software and computer development. The other numbers are concerned with wholesaling and manufacturing. On the other hand, companies with a large work force form the minority in the industry with an estimated 20% of firms that are engaged in ICT sector. The value of the ICT composition with the manufacturing and software development sector has been boosted by the need to provide investment of qualified professionals, who are capable of delivering the developments to ac hieve the economic progress desired. However, the large companies with an employee turnover of 500 professionals support the sector with the need to provide regulation of the needed gadgets. In 2010, leading companies owned the number that constituted the manufacturing segment of the ICT area. These companies held a minimal employee capacity with the number of employees estimated to be 50 per firm, and the record revealed that this number in the total ICT share occupied 3.7%. Contribution to the economy Research conducted revealed that the ICT sector had increased its total revenue between 2009 and

Direct Flower Delivery. Analysis Of The Website Assignment

Direct Flower Delivery. Analysis Of The Website - Assignment Example This Web site report details both front and back end capabilities. In inclusion with technical details, this report also consists of the customer interaction specifications. DFD, Direct Flower Delivery is a web based Florist to cater the growing Flower needs of people of United Kingdom. There are a large number of companies in UK delivering flowers to their customer’s home. People often send flowers, whether it is a birthday, wedding and some other special occasions. Many places such as restaurants, hotels, offices and many houses use flower to decorate the place. Not only flowers are used for specific occasions, there are many people changing their flowers at home once a week. To simplify the ordering procedure of these needs, DFD has evolved and is committed to serve the best to its customers. Currently, DFD is serving its customers with its web site. DFD offers wide range of choices to its customers. Through its site, DFD offers whole lot of features to its customer such as the freedom of ordering flowers online, Secured payment transactions, Track the delivery of ordered items and also a reminder service with important dates. The highlight of this web based company is that the customers have the advantage of designing their own style, pattern and of course flowers that are be delivered, apart from selecting from the pre-defined templates. 2. Website Objectives The objectives of this web-based florist are to offer features that will permit and promote the following: Ordering flowers with just a click of a mouse. Easy browsing and searching for various regular & seasonal flowers. Web tools which enable secured online payments. Easier accessing of information and help generally. Web tools to foster community relationship and cater their needs. In Simple, to make it easy and offer choices for their customers 3. Description of Target Audience The customers will be anyone in UK who looking for flowers to be sent to someone or themselves, whether for special occasions or to decorate their houses. The company will have a web site which design to make shopping for flowers on the internet quicker and easier. If such availability exists, the company will deliver flowers to the address on the date which has been requested by customers to be sent to. Customers can individually create their own design in flowers over the website and the flower which they create will be send to the address that they request. Customer will be able to track down their deliveries. The company will provide the information on the process of delivery for each individual customer, in order for customers to be able to track down their deliveries. 4. Business Constraints 4.1 Negative Constraints: 4.1.1 As it's a Web-based company, the competition is severe and to handle this aspect the web site and the company has to be on toes 24hours. 4.1.2 It's very hard to predict the volume of business the next day. The customer may be literally from anywhere on this world. If it's Florist on the

Campaign finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Campaign finance - Essay Example Richard Bruce "Dick" Cheney, forty-sixth vice president of the United States, has over three decades of experience in political service. Formerly a US representative and secretary of state, many saw Cheney as the ideal running mate for the relatively inexperienced George W. Bush in the 2000 presidential election.Cheney was born in Lincoln, Nebraska on January 30, 1941, the son of Marjorie and Richard H. Cheney. He was raised in Casper, Wyoming, where the elder Cheney worked as a soil conservationist for the Department of Agriculture.After graduating from a local high school, Cheney earned a scholarship and traveled east to attend Yale University in Connecticut. He dropped out of school during his second year, due to his poor academic performance, and returned to Wyoming. Cheney went to work for a brief time before returning to school, first at Casper College and later at the University of Wyoming. In 1964, he married his high-school sweetheart, Lynn Anne Vincent. Cheney finally gradu ated two years later with a master's degree in political science.After graduation, Cheney received an educational deferment to avoid military service during the Vietnam War. He enrolled in a doctoral program at the University of Wisconsin, and launched his long political career in 1968, when he went to Washington DC to work for Representative William Steiger (R-Wisconsin) as a congressional fellow. Cheney was soon recruited by Representative Donald Rumsfeld, the head of President Richard Nixon's Office of Economic Opportunity, to work as his assistant. (Carney 82) Throughout the early 1970s, Cheney held a number of positions alongside Rumsfeld, who had become a mentor to the young political hopeful. He served as deputy White House counsel, assistant director of the Cost of Living Council, and deputy chief of staff for President Gerald Ford. To supplement his income, Cheney also served as vice president of investment group Bradley, Woods, & Co. Cheney's biggest break came in 1975, when he replaced his mentor as White House chief of staff after Rumsfeld was appointed as secretary of defense. At the age of 34, Cheney was among the youngest men ever to hold this position, which he held until 1976. During this time, he earned a reputation as a prominent player in the Republican Party. Washington Insider Beginning in 1979, Cheney served six terms in the House of Representatives, as a representative from Wyoming. Before his election to the House, he suffered a heart attack, the first of three coronary episodes he would endure before the age of 50. As chairman of the Republican House Policy Committee for most of his tenure, Cheney was known as a conservative, and voted strictly along party lines. When Republican Ronald Reagan became president in 1981, Cheney and his right-wing House colleagues were steadfast supporters of the new White House agenda. In addition to his vocal support for the "Star Wars" missile defense system, Cheney was in favor of military backing for the "Contra" rebels in Nicaragua, as well as for rebel fighters in Afghanistan and Angola. In the late 1980s, when he sat on the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Deals with Iran during the Iran-Contra scandal, Cheney defended the controversial actions of the Reagan administration and his fellow Republicans. On the domestic issue front, Cheney was opposed to gun control and abortion and in favor of prayer in public schools. He voted against the Equal Rights Amendment and re-funding the Clean Water Act. As a result of his loyalty to the party, Cheney became minority whip, the second-most influential position in the House, in 1988. His wife, meanwhile, served as the chairperson of the National Endowment for the Humanities from 1986-1993. Under Reagan's successor, George Bush, Cheney served as secretary of defense, and played a key role in directing the nation's military during the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The popular success of the

Articles about Economy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Articles about Economy - Research Paper Example Given the inelastic nature of the supply curve, the impact of a negative demand shock had been rather hard for the market. The result of this oversupply was a depreciation in house price by 45% from what it had been in 2008. In Dubai alone, the fall in equilibrium demand price had been as much as 58%, owing to a sharp fall in the number of tourists. Falling demand for houses is also evident from depreciation in the amount of rents being paid on houses; statistics show this fall amounting to 10% in 2010 from what it had been in 2008. An even more pestering issue is that the nation had invested so much into high-end ventures, that there arises no question of turning back which is why the UAE housing market is preparing to introduce another 26,000 units by 2011 (Menon, â€Å"More sharp falls ahead for UAE house prices†). 3 The stock market of UAE, for example, is a market that follows a competitive structure. Similar to the traits of a monopolistically competitive market, the stocks are found to be somewhat different in their innate features, either due to the brand names that are associated with them or due to the different rates of return that they offer. However, while the former is an apparent factor, dependent upon the perception of the investor, the latter is a variable one. In fact, it is the returns that a stock offers which determine the popularity of the same; the moment a rumour hits the market about a possible downfall, the demand for such a stock falls simultaneously. Hence, competitive market forces are the reason why there are any absences of barriers preventing the economic units to act according to the market moves. For instance, the global financial meltdown resulted to a downward revision of the UAE stock indices as was the case for almost every other nation around the world. Such a development resulted to a reduction in the number of investors in the UAE

Write about yourself Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Write about yourself - Personal Statement Example With my current stand, I wish to contribute more to the political field by becoming a part of an embassy where I can practically impart my skills. Apart from my professional interests, I lead a balanced life by giving quality time to my part time activities and to my family and friends. I enjoy a very healthy relationship with my parents and younger brother and I manage to spend my vacations with them. A recent memorable holiday was only a few months back when we travelled to Orlando, Florida together and visited the Walt Disney World. It was an unforgettable experience as apart from the entertainment, we were able to spend unforgettable moments together. I lead an active lifestyle and keep myself engaged in various part time physical activities as well. I like swimming and regularly enjoy a swim with my friends. Apart from this, football is also my favorite sport and I like playing as well as watching the game. I am also fond of exploring new places and take pleasure in travelling to different places locally and abroad. Thus, I am an all-rounder and try to give my best to my professional field as well as to my family and

Articles about Economy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Articles about Economy - Research Paper Example Given the inelastic nature of the supply curve, the impact of a negative demand shock had been rather hard for the market. The result of this oversupply was a depreciation in house price by 45% from what it had been in 2008. In Dubai alone, the fall in equilibrium demand price had been as much as 58%, owing to a sharp fall in the number of tourists. Falling demand for houses is also evident from depreciation in the amount of rents being paid on houses; statistics show this fall amounting to 10% in 2010 from what it had been in 2008. An even more pestering issue is that the nation had invested so much into high-end ventures, that there arises no question of turning back which is why the UAE housing market is preparing to introduce another 26,000 units by 2011 (Menon, â€Å"More sharp falls ahead for UAE house prices†). 3 The stock market of UAE, for example, is a market that follows a competitive structure. Similar to the traits of a monopolistically competitive market, the stocks are found to be somewhat different in their innate features, either due to the brand names that are associated with them or due to the different rates of return that they offer. However, while the former is an apparent factor, dependent upon the perception of the investor, the latter is a variable one. In fact, it is the returns that a stock offers which determine the popularity of the same; the moment a rumour hits the market about a possible downfall, the demand for such a stock falls simultaneously. Hence, competitive market forces are the reason why there are any absences of barriers preventing the economic units to act according to the market moves. For instance, the global financial meltdown resulted to a downward revision of the UAE stock indices as was the case for almost every other nation around the world. Such a development resulted to a reduction in the number of investors in the UAE

Language is a loaded weapon Essay Example for Free

Language is a loaded weapon Essay Language is that knowledge held by native speakers which, combined with the use of expressive faculties, enables them to communicate in spoken and written forms. Language is creative it can create ambience i. e. harmony, strife and war depending on how we use it, and the intentions of the user. Man is a complex being each individual made so by unique common experiences, which colour not only our reception/perception and interpretation of data but also influence our delivery. The way people deliver a message can alter the way we think, our understanding, perception, or approach. Language can be used honestly or dishonestly. To convey truth or to pervert truth, to persuade, to convince, to control, to unite, disunite, to make something clear or to mystify. Language is the tool we use to communicate. Its not just words it includes N. V. C (Non Verbal Communication, signals that we give out in the way we stand and move our body). Some interpretation of language is done at a subconscious level, instinctively. When interpreting the encoders message we consider his/her motivation. What are they trying to achieve? i. e. The way in which someone is listening or watching can indicate to you whether or not they are interested, disliking or are bored with what you are saying. You notice this on a subconscious almost subliminal level. If you are the encoder you adjust the way in which you speak so as the receiver decodes your message properly and doesnt misunderstand what you have said. For example if you shout at someone they may get the impression you are angry with them, however you may have raised your voice to ensure they can hear you. To decode successfully many other aspects have to be considered about the encoders background, culture, belief system etc, over and above their motivation. Tone, pitch, volume, intonation, speed, hesitation, accent, emotion, even hormones, all affect both delivery and reception. Hence language is not a neutral tool; it is inadvertently biased in thousands of ways. All mankind is guilty of this fault. A clear example of this is propaganda, mass media, political persuasion, even the way history is written. For example in The Mirror after the September 11th incident, they produced a front page with the heading My son the hijacker. The way this title is worded makes you sympathise with the Mother, and shows us that the hijackers where not just people that had nothing to live for and no family, but people that had families. The subheading to this title was I did not bring up my son to hate he was a good, kind, young man not an evil killer. This brings reality to the fact that you think you know who and what type of person your son/daughter is, but then a tragic thing like this happens and you find out that perhaps you dont really know who and what your child is really like. Another example that language is a loaded weapon is in The Suns October 4th paper, on page 11 there was a heading Scouts leader let boy, 10, die on mountain. Your first reactions and emotions to this title are anger, hatred and spite towards the scout leader for letting a 10-year old boy die on a mountain. You then read on, to find out that the leader left the boy unsupervised at the rear of the group as they descended Mount Snowdon. This headline favours the boy, where as if the paper were writing in the favour of the leader you would perhaps have a heading more along the lines of A young boy strayed on the descent of mount Snowdon, slipped and fell 500ft to his death. This is an excellent example to show that Language is a loaded weapon this shows us that by simply changing the way in which this title is worded, creates a whole different perspective to the article. It can persuade you to feel sorry for the family of the boy and hatred towards the scout leader or to show consideration to the leader that the boy may have strayed from the path himself, slipped and fallen. Therefore language can be used to manipulate what you feel and in some ways is used to control you. Newspapers tell you what they think you should know not what you would like to know. An example of this was in the Daily Mirror 13th January 1996 page 7. A heading and its article entitled Gulp! took up nearly the whole of the page compared with a little box in the left hand corner which had the heading Girls-raped by gang of 14. When a few years later a similar thing happens to a boy this gets front-page news with the title of A gay gang rapes boy, 19 from The Sun. The way these articles have been positioned and the amount they have had written on them manipulates what the mass media wants us to know. The way the second article is written shows us that the media try to control what we think. The heading itself creates a lot of emotions even though his age is given as nineteen, the word boy is what immediately grabs your attention and causes your imagination to see a small child rather than a young man. Therefore taking in to consideration all these examples you find that language is not only a loaded weapon but is also one thousand ways biased. It can be used to manipulate what we think and what we think we know. We are told what to think and not asked to think about what we are told.

Different Translation Theories

Different Translation Theories Translation is to render the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. The translation cannot simply reproduce, or be, the original. The first business of the translator is to translate. There is a body of knowledge about translation which, if applied to solving translation problems, can contribute to a translators training. Everything without exception is translatable. There is no such a thing as a perfect, ideal or correct translation. In a narrow sense, translation theory is concerned with the translation method appropriately used for a certain type of text. In a wide sense, translation theory is the body of knowledge that we have about translation. Translation theory is concerned with minute as well as generalities, and both may be equally important in the context. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ KEYWORDSà £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœTranslation, Theory, Application, Literature Contents Contents II 1 Introduction 1 1.2 The function of translation 1 2 Different Types of Translation Theories 2 3 The Application in Literature Translation 7 4 Implication and Conclusion 11 4.1 Implication 11 4.2Conclusion 12 References 12 Introduction 1.1What the translation is Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated. Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization. 1.2 The function of translation (1) Translation is a means of communication; (2) Translation is instrumental in transmitting culture; (3) Translation is also a transmitter of the truth; (4) Translation is a technique for learning foreign languages. 1.3 What a translation theory does is (1) to identify and define a translation problem (2) to indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving the problem (3) to list all the possible translation procedures (4) to recommend the most suitable translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation. 1.4 Translation Methods The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument was theoretical. Now the context has changed, but the basic problem remains. The Methods are as follows: Word-for-word translation Literal translation Faithful translation Semantic translation Adaptation Free translation Idiomatic translation Communicative translation In all those above, only semantic and communicative translation fulfill the two main aims of translation: accuracy and economy. In general, a semantic translation is written at the authors linguistic level, a communicative at the readerships. Semantic translation is used for expressive texts, communicative for informative and vocative texts. So, next we talk about the equivalent effect. Equivalent effect (produce the same effect) is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation. In the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential. In informative texts, equivalent effect is desirable only in respect of their insignificant emotional impact. The more cultural a text, the less is equivalent effect even conceivable. Different Types of Translation Theories 2.1 Literal Translation According to the linguistic theory of discourse analysis, any deviation from literal translation van be justified in any place appealing to the text as an overriding authority. In fact, literal translation is correct and must not be avoided, if it secures referential and pragmatic equivalence to the original. Literal translation is different from word-to-word and one-to-one translation. Literal translation ranges from one word to one word, group to group, collocation to collocation, clause to clause, sentence to sentence. It is to be the basic translation procedure, both in communicative and semantic translations, I that translation starts from there. The translation of poetry is the field where most emphasis is normally put on the creation of a new independent poem, and where literal translation is usually condemned. However, a translation van be inaccurate, it can never be too literal. We must not be afraid of literal translation. For a TL word which looks the same or nearly the same as the SL word, there are more faithful friends than faux aims (false friends).Everything is translatable up to a point, but there are often enormous difficulties. We do translate words, because there is nothing else to translate. We do not translate isolated words, we translate words all more or less bound by their syntactic, collocational, situational cultural and individual idiolect contexts. Elegant variations on literal or one-to-one translation are common, but they may not be justified in semantic or even communicative translation. The validity of literal translation can sometimes be established by the back-translation test. The back-translation test is not valid in the case of SL or TL lexical gaps. Some institutional terms are translated literally even though the TL cultural equivalents have widely different functions. Some concept-words are translated literally and often misleading, as their local connotations are often different. There are all kinds of insidious resistances to literal translation. It is sometimes advisable to retreat from literal translation when faced with SL general words for which there are no satisfactory one-to-one TL equivalents even though one is over-translating. That is the so called Natural Translation. Literal translation is the first step in translation. Re-creative translation is possible, but interpret the sense, not the words is the translators last resort. The modern literary translator continually pursue what is to them more natural, more colloquial than the original. But Their idiomatic English may be in flagrant contrast with a neutral original. 2.2 Traditional Chinese Translation Theory Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translating from specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. In those five regions, the languages of the people were not mutually intelligible, and their likings and desires were different. To make what was in their minds apprehended, and to communicate their likings and desires, (there were officers), in the east, called transmitters; in the south, representationists; in the west, Tà ®-tà ®s; and in the north, interpreters. (à §Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¶ The Royal Regulations, tr. James Legge 1885 vol. 27, pp. 229-230) A Western Han work attributes a dialogue about translation to Confucius. Confucius advises a ruler who wishes to learn foreign languages not to bother. Confucius tells the ruler to focus on governance and let the translators handle translation. The earliest bit of translation theory may be the phrase names should follow their bearers, while things should follow China. In other words, names should be transliterated, while things should be translated by meaning. In the late Qing Dynasty and the Republican Period, reformers such as Liang Qichao, Hu Shi and Zhou Zuoren began looking at translation practice and theory of the great translators in Chinese history. 2.3 Asian Translation Theory There is a separate tradition of translation in South Asia and East Asia (primarily modern India and China), especially connected with the rendering of religious texts particularly Buddhist texts and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe, and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation. In the East Asia Sinosphere (sphere of Chinese cultural influence), more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of vocabulary and writing system. Notable is Japanese Kanbun, which is a system of glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers. 2.4 Western Translation Theory Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631-1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, counterparts, or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language. When words appear literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since what is beautiful in one language is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his authors words: tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense. This general formulation of the central concept of translation equivalence is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating word for word (verbum pro verbo). Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents literal where possible, paraphrastic where necessary for the original meaning and other crucial values (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context. In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The grammatical differences between fixed-word-order languages (e.g. English, French, German) and free-word-order languages (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are untranslatable among the modern European languages. Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actual (present, current), the Polish aktualny (present, current), or the Russian à Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ (urgent, topical). The translators role as a bridge for carrying across values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translators role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that Translation is a type of drawing after life Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnsons remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon. If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether. The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, it has been axiomatic that one translates only toward his own language. Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Andrzej KopczyÅ„ski. The translators special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by Polands La Fontaine, the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki: Translation is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; it should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country. Serious Literature Translation Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four forms, no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance. And if the word is the first unit of meaning, the second is not the sentence or the proposition, but usually the line, thereby demonstrating a unique double concentration of units. The translator can boldly transfer the image of any metaphor where it is known in the TL language. Original metaphors have to be translated accurately, even if in the target language culture the image is strange and the sense it conveys may only be guessed. Sound-effects are bound to come last for the translator. The translation of Short Story/Novel: From a translators point of view, the short story is, of literary forms, the second most difficult, but he is released from the obvious constraints of poetry meter and rhyme. Further, since the line is no longer a unit of meaning, he can spread himself a little his version is likely to be somewhat longer than the original though, always, the shorter the better. The translation of the Drama: A translator of drama inevitably has to bear the potential spectator in mind. A translation of a play must be concise it must not be an over-translation. He must word the sentence in such a way that the sub-text is equally clear. He must translate into the modern target language. When a play is transferred from the SL to the TL culture it is usually no longer a translation, but an adaptation. Some kind of accuracy must be the only criterion of a good translation in the future what kind of accuracy depending first on the type and then the particular text that has been translated. The Application in Literature Translation 3.1The Definition of Literature Translation Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. For example, notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor Generals Awards annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Ã…Â »eleÅ„ski, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami. 3.2 Brief Comparison of the Application of Western and Eastern Theories The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures. Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The 9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bedes Ecclesiastical History and Boethius Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of St. Jeromes Vulgate of ca. 384 CE,the standard Latin Bible. In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render. Large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the Arabs. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Cà ³rdoba in Spain. Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance the development of European Scholasticism. The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language. 3.3 The Application of Asian and European Translation Theories The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knights Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the French-language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier-established literary languages. The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malorys Le Morte Darthur-an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of Jean Froissarts Chronicles (1523-25). Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Platos works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus. Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. Frances Plà ©iade, Englands Tudor poets, and the Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a middle class and the development of printing, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day. 3.4 Recent Development and Application of Western Translation Theory The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for verbal accuracy. In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman. Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poets subtlety and concision. Similarly, Homer suffered from Alexander Popes endeavor to reduce the Greek poets wild paradise to order. Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or-as in the case of James Macphersons translations of Ossian-from texts that were actually of the translators own composition. The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text, except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGeralds Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original. In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowetts example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion. 3.5 The Application of Serious Literature Translation Poetry presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a texts formal aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper On Linguistic Aspects of Translation, the Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson went so far as to declare that poetry by definition is untranslatable. In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, Lost in Translation, which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in Douglas Hofstadters 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot; he argues that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible of not only its literal meaning but also its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.). In 2008, Taiwanese linguist Grace Hui Chin Lin suggests communication strategies can be applied by oral translators to translate poetry. Translators with cultural backgrounds can oral translate poetry of their nations. For example, poetry of Tung dynasty can be introduced to people outside of Chinese communities by oral translation strategies. Also, several communication strategies for facilitating communicative limitations are applicable as oral translation strategies for interpreting poetries. Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language sometimes called singing translation is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stannic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Wink worth. Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line. Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum. Translations of sung texts whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing. Implication and Conclusion Implication n the 1970s a literary approach to translation theory began to emerge, partly as a response to the prescriptive linguistic theories that had monopolized thinking for the previous two decades. Key elements of this new literary approach are the writings of the Manipulation School; systems theories; and Gideon Tourys descriptive translation studies (DTS), which tries to identify laws in translation, of which Itamar Even-Zohars Polysystem Theory (PS) forms a vital part (Nam Fung Chang). At the Leuven Conference in 1976, Even-Zohar presented a paper entitled The Position of Translated Literature in the Literary Polysystem where he considers the position of translated literature within the literary, cultural and historical contexts of the target culture. He does not advocate the study of individual translations, but rather views the body of translated works as a system working within and reacting to a literary system, which, in turn, is working within and reacting to the historical, social and cultural systems of the particular target audience. Therefore, there is a system within a system within a system i.e. the polysystem. The notion of system does, perhaps, need some clarification at this point. Literature viewed as a system can be traced back to Russian Formalist thinking of the 1920s when Yury Tynjanov is credited with being the first person to describe literature in these terms (Hermans, 1999, 104). Translated literature itself is also considered to operate as a system in at least two ways firstly in the way that the TL chooses works for translation, and secondly in the way translation methodology varies according to the influence of other systems (Munday, 2001 109). Even-Zohar himself emphasizes the fact that translated literature functions systemically: I conceive of translated literature not only as an integral system within any literary polysystem but as an active system within it. (1976, 200). Translation theory shares a number of concerns with what is commonly called communication theory. Perhaps the most important observation which the communication theorists have produced for translators is the recognition that every act of communication has three dimensions: Speaker (or author), Message, and Audience. The more we can know about the original author, the actual message produced by that author, and the original audience, the better acquainted we will be with that particular act of communication. An awareness of this tri-partite character of communication can be very useful for interpreters. Assuming that an act of communication is right now taking place, as you read what I wrote, there are three dimensions to this particular act of communication: myself, and what I am intending to communicate; the actual words which are on this page; and what you understand me to be saying. When the three dimensions converge, the communication has been efficient. 4.2Conclusion Different theories show different meanings. While not everyone who drives an automobile needs to understand the theory behind the internal combustion engine, someone does need to know this theory. I may be able to drive my Pontiac without any knowledge of internal combustion engines, until the Pontiac breaks down. Then, I must find someone (presumably a mechanic) who does in fact know enough theory to get the Pontiac running again. The same is true of translation theory. It is not necessary for everyone to know translation theory, nor is it even necessary for pastors and teachers to know everything about translation theory. It is necessary for pastors and teachers in the American church at the end of the twentieth century to know something about translation theory, for two reasons. First, it will affect the way we interpret the Bible for our people. If we are completely unaware of translation theory, we may unwittingly mislead our brothers and sisters in our interpretation. Second, there are so many English translations available, that